Udlame lwamazwe aseSahel lungaxhunyaniswa nokubamba iqhaza kwamasosha ahlomile eTuareg, alwela izwe elizimele.
nguTeodor Detchev
Ukuqala komjikelezo omusha wodlame emazweni ase-Sahel kungaxhunyaniswa kancane ne-Arab Spring. Isixhumanisi asifani ngempela futhi asihlobene “nesibonelo esikhuthazayo” sothile. Isixhumanisi esiqondile sihlobene nokubamba iqhaza kwamasosha ahlomile aseTuareg, osekungamashumi eminyaka elwela ukwakhiwa kombuso ozimele - ikakhulukazi engxenyeni esenyakatho yeMali. [1]
Ngesikhathi sempi yombango eLibya, ngesikhathi esaphila uMuammar Gaddafi, amasosha aseTuareg acheme naye, kodwa ngemva kokufa kwakhe, abuyela eMali nazo zonke izikhali zawo ezinzima nezilula. Ukuvela okungazelelwe kunamandla kakhulu kunangaphambili ama-paramilitaries aseTuareg, ahlome amazinyo ngokoqobo, kuyizindaba ezimbi kuziphathimandla zaseMali, kodwa nakwamanye amazwe esifundeni. Isizathu siwukuthi kube noguquko olwenzekile phakathi kwamaTuareg futhi amanye amaqembu abo ahlomile "aphinde aqamba kabusha" kusukela kwabalwela inkululeko yezwe baba amaqembu e-Uzhkim Islamist. [2]
Lesi senzakalo, lapho ukwakheka kwe-ethnocentric nomlando omude, ngokuzumayo kuhlanganisa iziqubulo nemikhuba ethi "jihadi", umbhali wale migqa ubiza ngokuthi "izinhlangano eziphansi eziphindwe kabili". Izenzakalo ezinjalo aziyona into ekhethekile yaseNtshonalanga Africa iyodwa, “Ibutho LikaNkulunkulu Eliphikisayo” e-Uganda, kanye nezinhlangano ezihlukahlukene ezihlomile zama-Islamic eziqhingini eziseningizimu kakhulu yeqoqo leziqhingi zasePhilippine. [2], [3]
Izinto zaseNtshonalanga Afrika zahlangana ngendlela yokuthi ngemuva kuka-2012-2013, lesi sifunda saba inkundla yempi lapho "ama-franchise" amanethiwekhi amaphekula emhlabeni wonke, okuthi ngokwezinga elikhulu noma elincane kubizwe ngokuthi "amaphekula" ukuhlakazeka ", ngenxa yokuthi isakhiwo, imithetho kanye nobuholi, okuwukuphika izinhlangano zakudala. [1], [2]
E-Mali, amaTuareg, ama-Islamist asanda kuqanjwa, ebhekene ne-al-Qaeda kodwa ngokubambisana namaSalafist angewona awe-Islamic State noma i-al-Qaeda, azama ukwakha izwe elizimele enyakatho yeMali. [2] Ukuphendula, iziphathimandla zaseMaliya zaqala umkhankaso wezempi ngokumelene namaTuareg namajihadist, owasekelwa yiFrance ngegunya elivela kuMkhandlu Wezokuphepha we-UN - ngaphansi kwalokho okubizwa nge-UN Stabilization Mission eMali - Minusma.
I-Operations Serval kanye ne-Barhan iqala ngokulandelana, i-Operation Serval iyinhlangano yezempi yaseFrance eMali eyenziwa ngokulandela i-Security Council Resolution 2085 yamhla zingama-20 kuDisemba 2012. Lesi sinqumo savotelwa ngesicelo seziphathimandla zaseMaliya, kungekho muntu, kuhlanganise neRussia. , bephikisa, ingasaphathwa eyokuvotela uMkhandlu Wezokuphepha. Umgomo wokusebenza ngokugunyazwa kwe-UN ukunqoba amabutho e-jihadists kanye nezinhlangano ze-Tuareg "ezinendawo ephindwe kabili" engxenyeni esenyakatho yeMali, eziqala ukwenza indlela yazo eya engxenyeni emaphakathi yezwe. .
Ngesikhathi kuqhubeka lo msebenzi, kwabulawa abaholi abathathu kwabahlanu bamaSulumane - u-Abdelhamid Abu Zeid, u-Abdel Krim no-Omar Ould Hamaha. U-Mokhtar Belmokhtar wabalekela e-Libya kwathi u-Iyad ag Ghali wabalekela e-Algeria. I-Operation Serval (eqanjwe ngekati lasendle elidumile lase-Afrika) yaphela mhla ziyi-15 kuJulayi 2014 ukuze ilandelwe yi-Operation Barhan, eyaqala mhla lu-1 kuNcwaba wezi-2014.
I-Operation Barhan yenzeka endaweni yamazwe amahlanu aseSahel - iBurkina Faso, iChad, iMali, iMauritania neNiger. Amasosha angama-4,500 5 aseFrance abambe iqhaza, kanti amazwe amahlanu eSahel (G5,000 - Sahel) aqeqesha amasosha angaba ngu-XNUMX ukujoyina imisebenzi yokulwa namaphekula.
Umzamo wokuhlukanisa ingxenye esenyakatho yeMali ibe uhlobo oluthile lwezwe lamaTuareg-Islamist wehlulekile. Operations "Serval" kanye "Barkhan" ukufeza izinhloso zabo ngokushesha. Izifiso zama-Islamist kanye "nezinhlangano eziphansi eziphindwe kabili" seziphelile. Okubi ukuthi lokhu akubuqedi udlame futhi, ngokufanelekile, nobutha obuseSahel. Nakuba ehluliwe futhi ephoqeleka ukuthi acabange kuqala mayelana nendlela yokucasha emabuthweni aseFrance nasemazweni e-G5-Sahel, ama-radicals amaSulumane aphendukela ezimpini zama-guerrilla, ngezinye izikhathi aphenduka abe ubugebengu obulula.
Nakuba ngemva kokusebenza kwe-Serwal ne-Barkhan, ama-radicals amaSulumane awasakwazi ukuzuza noma yiziphi izimpumelelo zamasu, okungenani ngokubona kokuqala, inani lokuhlaselwa kwezakhamuzi alinciphi, kodwa ezindaweni ezithile liyakhula. Lokhu kudala indawo enovalo kakhulu nengenampilo, esetshenziswa amadoda afuna ukuvelela angahambisani nombono wokuthi ibutho lingelezinkambi.
Ngakolunye uhlangothi, ibutho lase-Afrika liyikheshi lomphakathi. Kwenza umuntu afinyelele uhlobo oluthile lwesimiso sokuhlonishwa. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, umkhuba wokuketulwa kwamasosha e-Afrika usakazeke kangangokuba labo abafuna ukuba ngabakhuzi bamasosha babonakala bengawubheki njengecala nhlobo.
Njengoba imininingwane ye-STATISTA ibonisa, phakathi kukaJanuwari 1950 noJulayi 2023 kube nemizamo engaba ngu-220 yokuketula umbuso eyaphumelela neyahluleka e-Afrika, ehlanganisa cishe ingxenye (amaphesenti angu-44 ayo yonke imizamo yokuketula umbuso emhlabeni. Kuhlanganisa nemizamo ehlulekile, iSudan ihamba phambili ohlwini lwamazwe ase-Afrika ukuketula umbuso kaningi kusukela ngo-1950 njengoba sekuphelele angu-17. Ngemuva kweSudan, iBurundi (11), iGhana neSierra Leone (10) amazwe anemizamo eminingi yokuketula umbuso kusukela maphakathi nekhulu lama-20.
Esimeni sanamuhla eSahel, kulandela intuthuko yokuqala yama-Islamist ashibhile kanye “nezinhlangano ezingaphansi kabili” enyakatho neMali kanye nokuhlasela okuhambisanayo kwamasosha ahlomile emazweni e-G5 Sahel kanye neFrance, okukhathaza kakhulu ukuphepha kwabantu. Ezinye izakhamizi zamazwe ahlukene esifundeni zinemizwa efanayo, engafingqwa ku-aphorism yesakhamuzi saseBurkina Faso: “Emini siyaqhaqhazela hleze amasosha avela ebuthweni elivamile afike, futhi ebusuku siyaqhaqhazela hleze ama-Islamist. wozani.”
Yilesi simo kanye esinikeza isibindi emibuthanweni ethile phakathi kwezempi ukuze ifinyelele amandla. Lokhu kufakazelwa inkolelo-mbono yokuthi uhulumeni wamanje akakwazi ukubhekana nokwesaba okubekwe ama-radicals amaSulumane. Kumele kuqashelwe ukuthi isikhathi sikhethwe ngokunembile - ngakolunye uhlangothi, ama-jihadists ahluliwe futhi ikhono labo lokuthatha izindawo unomphela alilikhulu kangako. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, ukuhlaselwa kwama-Islamic radicals kuhlala kuyingozi kakhulu futhi kuyingozi kubantu abaningi. Ngakho-ke, amasosha kwamanye amazwe asebenzisa ngokunenzuzo umsebenzi owenziwe yi-UN kanye ne-G5 Sahel amabutho ngokumelene nabaphehli bezinkinga futhi ngesikhathi esifanayo (ngokuzenzisa impela) baphakamisa indaba yokuthi izindawo zabo azilungisiwe futhi "ikhono" labo liyadingeka ukungenelela.
Umuntu angase aphikise ngokuthi ngesinye isikhathi iBurkina Faso, lapho iziphathimandla kukholakala ukuthi zinokulawula okuvikelekile kumaphesenti angama-60 nje kuphela wendawo yezwe kusukela ekuqaleni kuka-2022, kuye kwabonakala kuhlukile. [40] Lokhu kuyiqiniso, kodwa izingxenye kuphela. Kufanele kucace ukuthi ama-Islamic radicals awakwazi ukulawula ingxenye esele ye-40% yendawo ngendlela yokuthi igama elithi "control" lingasetshenziswa ngaphansi kwe-Islamic State eSyria nase-Iraq noma umzamo wokuhlukanisa ingxenye esenyakatho yeTuareg. yehlisa kancane ijubane. Akukho ukuphatha kwendawo lapha okufakwe ama-Islamists, futhi akukho lawulo lwe-de facto okungenani phezu kokuxhumana okuyisisekelo. Ukuthi nje amavukelambuso angenza ubugebengu ngaphandle kokujeziswa, yingakho abagxeki bakahulumeni ngaleso sikhathi (futhi mhlawumbe nowamanje) bekholelwa ukuthi le ngxenye yendawo yezwe ayikho ngaphansi kokulawulwa yiziphathimandla. [9], [17], [40]
Kunoma yikuphi, indaba ebuhlungu kakhulu ngokungenakuphikwa yokuhlaselwa njalo kwama-radicals amaSulumane inikeze izizathu zokuziphatha (okungenani emehlweni abo) ukuthi amasosha kwamanye amazwe aseSahel athathe amandla ngenkani, ethethelela izenzo zawo ngokukhathalela ukuphepha kwezwe. abantu. Ukuketula umbuso kokugcina okunjalo okwenzeka esifundeni kwaba ukuketula umbuso eNiger, lapho uGeneral Abdurahman Tiani athatha khona amandla ngomhla zingama-26 kuJulayi 2023. [22]
Kubalulekile ukusho lapha ukuthi ukuketulwa kombuso eGabon, okungangabazeki ukuthi kungukuketula umbuso kwakamuva okungenzeka ukuthi kwenzeke eNtshonalanga Afrika, ngeke kubonakale endaweni efanayo naleyo eyadalwa yizinqubo ezenzeka emazweni aseSahel. [10], [14] Ngokungafani neMali, Burkina Faso, Niger, kanye ne-Chad, abukho ubutha phakathi kwamasosha kahulumeni nama-Islamic radicals eGabon, futhi ukuketula umbuso kuhloswe, okungenani okwamanje, ngokumelene nomndeni kamongameli, umndeni wakwaBongo. , osevele ebusa iGabon iminyaka engu-56.
Noma kunjalo, kufanele kugcizelelwe ukuthi ngemuva kwesikhathi sokuzola phakathi kuka-2013 no-2020, kube nemizamo yokuketula umbuso eyi-13 e-Afrika, okuhlanganisa eSudan, Chad, Guinea, Burkina Faso naseMali. [4], [32]
Lapha kufanele siveze njengokuhlobene ngandlela thize ne-maelstrom entsha yamanje ye ezombusazwe Ukungabikho kozinzo eNtshonalanga Afrika, ikakhulukazi eSahel, udlame oluqhubekayo eCentral African Republic (CAR), lapho izimpi zombango ezimbili zilwe zilandelana. Eyokuqala, eyaziwa ngokuthi i-Central African Republic Bush War, yaqala ngo-2004 futhi yaphela ngokusemthethweni ngesivumelwano sokuthula se-de jure ngo-2007, kanye ne-de facto ngo-March 2013. Eyesibili, eyaziwa ngokuthi "impi yombango eCentral African Republic" ( Central African Republic Civil War), yaqala ngo-April 2013 futhi ayikapheli kuze kube namuhla, nakuba amasosha kahulumeni manje esebeke izandla engxenyeni enkulu yezwe ayekade eyilawula.
Akudingekile ukusho, izwe elimpofu kakhulu, inkomba yalo yokuthuthukiswa kwabantu isezingeni eliphansi kakhulu lezinga (indawo yokugcina, okungenani kuze kube ngu-2021 ibekelwe iNiger) futhi ubungozi bokwenza noma yimuphi umsebenzi wezomnotho buphezulu kakhulu, "isimo esihlulekile" futhi ngokuhamba kwesikhathi siba isisulu samanqe ahlukahlukene ezombusazwe namasosha. Kulesi sigaba ngonembeza omuhle singadlulisela iMali, iBurkina Faso, iNiger, iCentral African Republic (CAR) neSouth Sudan eqenjini lamazwe acatshangelwe kulokhu kuhlaziya.
Ngaso leso sikhathi, uhlu lwamazwe ase-Afrika lapho inkampani yezempi yangasese yaseRussia i-Wagner iqinisekisiwe ukuthi inobukhona obubonakalayo futhi obuvunyelwe uhulumeni buhlanganisa iMali, Algeria, Libya, Sudan, South Sudan, CAR, Cameroon, DR Congo, Zimbabwe , Mozambique kanye neMadagascar. [4], [39]
Ukuqhathaniswa phakathi kohlu “lwezifunda ezihlulekile” ezicekelwe phansi yizimpi zombango, izingxabano zobuzwe nezenkolo, ukuketulwa umbuso kwezempi namanye amashwa anjalo kanye nohlu lwamazwe lapho amasosha e-PMC Wagner “esebenza” ngokusobala avuna ohulumeni abasemthethweni kukhombisa isenzakalo esimangalisayo.
IMali, iCentral African Republic kanye neSouth Sudan avelele kuzo zombili lezi zinhlu. Ayikakabi bikho idatha eqinisekisiwe ngobukhona obusemthethweni be-PMC “Wagner” eBurkina Faso, kodwa kunezinkomba ezanele zokungenelela nokusekelwa kweRussia esivuna abahleli bamavukelambuso bakamuva ezweni, ingasaphathwa eyanda imizwa yokusekela iRussia, kakade eqinisweni lokuthi ama-mercenaries we-Prigozhin ongasekho asekwazile "ukuzihlukanisa" ezweni elingumakhelwane laseMali. [9], [17]
Eqinisweni, “ukubonakala” kuka-PMC Wagner e-Central African Republic nase-Mali kufanele kubangele ukwesaba phakathi kwama-Afrika. Ukuthanda kwamasosha aseRussia okubulala abantu abaningi kanye nesihluku bekusesidlangalaleni kusukela ngesikhathi saseSyria ekubonakaleni kwabo, kodwa izenzo zabo e-Afrika, ikakhulukazi e-CAR naseMali eshiwo ngenhla, nazo zibhalwe kahle. [34] Ekupheleni kukaJulayi 2022, umkhuzi wamabutho aseFrance ku-Operation Barhan ehlatshwe umkhosi we-UN, uGeneral Laurent Michon, wasola ngokuqondile u-PMC Wagner "ngokuphanga iMali". [24]
Eqinisweni, njengoba sekushiwo ngenhla, izehlakalo zaseMali naseBurkina Faso zixhumene futhi zilandela iphethini efanayo. "Ukuthelelana" kodlame olukhulu lwama-Islamist kwaqala eMali. Yadlula ekuvukeleni kwamaTuareg-Islamist enyakatho yezwe futhi, ngemuva kokunqotshwa kwamavukelambuso ngamasosha e-UN kanye ne-G5 - Sahel, yabe isithatha uhlobo lwempi yabashokobezi, udlame olubhekiswe emphakathini kanye nokugebenga kwasobala ezweni. ingxenye ephakathi neMali, lapho afuna khona ukusekelwa kwabantu baseFulani noma baseFulbe (indaba ebaluleke kakhulu ezohlaziywa ngokuningiliziwe kamuva) futhi yathuthela eBurkina Faso. Abahlaziyi baze bakhuluma ngokuthi iBurkina Faso iba “isizinda esisha sodlame”. [17]
Kodwa-ke, imininingwane ebalulekile ukuthi ngo-Agasti 2020, ukuketulwa kwamasosha kwagumbuqela umongameli okhethiwe waseMali - u-Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta. Lokhu kube nomthelela omubi ekulweni namajihadist, ngoba amasosha angena embusweni abukeka ngokungawethembi umbutho we-UN, owakhiwe ikakhulukazi amasosha aseFrance. Babesola ngokufanelekile ukuthi amaFulentshi ayengakuvumeli ukuketulwa kwamasosha. Yingakho iziphathimandla ezintsha, ezizikhethele zona eMali zashesha ukufuna ukuthi kuqedwe ukusebenza kwe-UN (ikakhulukazi amaFulentshi) eMali. Ngaso leso sikhathi, ababusi bezempi bezwe babesaba kakhulu amabutho aseFrance ayegunyazwe yi-UN endaweni yabo kunama-radicals amaSulumane.
UMkhandlu Wezokuphepha we-UN waqeda umsebenzi wokugcina ukuthula eMali ngokushesha okukhulu futhi amaFulentshi aqala ukuhoxa, ngokusobala ngaphandle kokuzisola okukhulu. Khona-ke ibutho lezempi eBamako lakhumbula ukuthi impi yabashokobezi yama-Islamic radicals ayizange iphele nhlobo futhi yafuna olunye usizo lwangaphandle, olwavela ngesimo se-PMC "Wagner" kanye neRussian Federation, ehlala ilungele ukukhonza ngomqondo ofanayo. izikhulu zombuso. Imicimbi yathuthukiswa ngokushesha okukhulu futhi i-PMC "Wagner" yashiya izinyathelo ezijulile zezicathulo zayo ezihlabathini zaseMali. [34], [39]
Ukuketula umbuso eMali kwaqala "umphumela we-domino" - ukuketula umbuso okubili kwalandela onyakeni owodwa eBurkina Faso (!), kwase kuba seNiger naseGabon. Iphethini nezisusa (noma kunalokho izizathu) zokwenza ukuketula umbuso eBurkina Faso zazifana nalezo zaseMali. Ngemuva kuka-2015, udlame, ukucekelwa phansi kwempahla nokuhlasela kwezikhali ngama-radicals amaSulumane kwanda kakhulu. “Ama-franchise” ahlukahlukene e-al-Qaeda, i-Islamic State (i-Islamic State of West Africa, the Islamic State of the Greater Sahara, njll.) kanye nezinhlangano ezizimele zamaSalafist zibulale izinkulungwane zezakhamizi, kanye nenani “labafudukisiwe ngaphakathi” , uyaqonda - ababaleki sebedlule abantu abayizigidi ezimbili. Ngakho, iBurkina Faso yazuza idumela elingabazisayo lokuba “isizinda esisha sengxabano yaseSahel.” [9]
NgoJanuwari 24, 2022, amasosha eBurkina Faso, eholwa uPaul-Henri Damiba, aketula uMengameli uRoch Kabore, osebuse izwe iminyaka eyisithupha, ngemva kwezinsuku ezimbalwa zodweshu enhlokodolobha, i-Ouagadougou. [9], [17], [32] Kodwa ngoSepthemba 30, 2022, okwesibili ngawo lowo nyaka, kwenziwa okunye ukuketula umbuso. Umongameli ozibeke yena uPaul-Henri Damiba uketulwe ngukaputeni u-Ibrahim Traore owayenesifiso esifanayo. Ngemuva kokukhipha umengameli okhona njengamanje, uTraore uphinde wahlakaza uhulumeni wesikhashana owasungulwa nguDamiba wamisa (ekugcineni) umthethosisekelo. Ngokungangabazeki, okhulumela umbutho wamasosha uthe ithimba lamaphoyisa lithathe isinqumo sokususa uDamiba ngenxa yokungakwazi kwakhe ukubhekana nezihlubuki ezihlomile zama-Islamic radicals. Ukuthi ungowesikhungo esifanayo esihlulekile ukubhekana namajihadist ngaphansi komongameli ababili abalandelanayo cishe iminyaka eyisikhombisa akumkhathazi nakancane. Ngaphezu kwalokho, usho ngokusobala ukuthi "ezinyangeni eziyisishiyagalolunye ezedlule" (okungukuthi, ngemva nje kokuvukela umbuso ngoJanuwari 2022 ngokubamba iqhaza kwakhe), "isimo siye saba sibi kakhulu". [9]
Ngokuvamile, imodeli yokuqhwagwa kwamandla ngodlame iyadalwa emazweni lapho kunokuqina komsebenzi wokuvukela umbuso wama-Islamic radicals. Lapho amabutho e-UN (eqonda "amabi" amaFulentshi kanye namasosha e-G5 - Sahel) ephula ukuhlasela kwama-jihadists futhi ukulwa kusasele emkhakheni wezimpi zamaphekula, ukucekela phansi kanye nokuhlasela kwezakhamizi, amasosha endawo ngesikhathi esithile. izwe libheka ukuthi ihora lalo selishayile; kuthiwa ukulwa nama-radical Islamists akuphumeleli futhi ... kuthatha amandla.
Ngokungangabazeki, isimo esinethezekile - ama-radicals amaSulumane awasenawo amandla okungena enhloko-dolobha yakho futhi asungule uhlobo oluthile "lwe-Islamic State" kuwe, futhi ngesikhathi esifanayo, ukulwa kusekude ukuphela futhi kukhona okuzokwethusa abantu. . Inkinga ehlukile ukuthi ingxenye enkulu yabantu yesaba ibutho labo “lomdabu” ngenxa yezizathu eziningi. Zisukela ekungaphenduleni kwabaphathi bamasosha kuye ekuhlukeni kwezizwe ezihlangene nojenene abafanayo.
Kukho konke lokhu, ukwesabeka okungagwegwesi kwezindlela ze-"Wagner", abangabasekeli "bezenzo ezinkulu" kanye "nokugawulwa kwezimboni", sekungeziwe. [39]
Kulapha lapho kufanele sishiye isikhashana indiza ende phezu komlando wokungena kwamaSulumane eNtshonalanga Afrika futhi sinake into eyenzeka ngengozi okungenzeka ukuthi ayizenzekelanga. Ngokufuna izinsiza zabantu ngembangela yabo, ikakhulukazi ngemuva kokushiywa kakhulu yizidlamlilo zaseTuareg kulandela ukwehluleka kwezihlubuki enyakatho yeMali, ama-Islamic radicals aphendukela kumaFulani, abantu abayimizulane yabelusi bofuzo abahlanganyela ekwaluseni abafudukayo. ibhande elisuka eGulf of Guinea ukuya oLwandle Olubomvu, eningizimu yogwadule lwaseSahara.
AmaFulani (owaziwa nangokuthi amaFula, amaFulbe, amaHilani, amaPhilata, amaFulau, kanye nePyol, kuye ngokuthi yiziphi izilimi eziningi ezikhulunywa kuleso sifunda) angomunye wabantu bokuqala base-Afrika abaguqukela ku-Islam nangenxa yendlela yabo yokuphila futhi indlela yokuziphilisa ngokwezinga elithile ibandlululwa futhi iyabandlululwa. Eqinisweni, ukusatshalaliswa kwezindawo zeFulani kubukeka kanje:
AbakwaFulani balinganiselwa ku-16,800,000 eNigeria esibalweni sabantu abayizigidi eziyi-190; ezingu-4,900,000 13 3,500,000 eGuinea (enenhloko-dolobha iConakry) ezakhamuzini eziyizigidi ezingu-16); ezingu-3,000,000 18.5 2,900,000 eSenegal ezweni elinabantu abayizigidi ezingu-24; 1,600,000 eMali ezakhamuzini eziyizigidi ezingu-21; ezingu-1,260,000 4.2 1,200,000 eCameroon ezakhamuzini eziyizigidi ezingu-19; abangu-580,000 15 320,000 eNiger ezakhamuzini eziyizigidi ezingu-2; abangu-320,000 1.9 310,000 eMauritania ezakhamuzini eziyizigidi ezingu-6.2; abangu-250,000 eBurkina Faso (I-Upper Volta) kubantu abayizigidi ezingu-5.4; abangu-10 4,600 eChad kubantu abayizigidi ezingu-28; 1,800 eGambia kubantu abayizigidi ezimbili; abangu-23.5 eGuinea-Bissau kubantu abayizigidi ezingu-38; 38 eSierra Leone kubantu abayizigidi ezingu-XNUMX; ezingu-XNUMX eCentral African Republic enezakhamuzi eziyizigidi ezingu-XNUMX (nabacwaningi begcizelela ukuthi lena ingxenye yezwe lamaSulumane, okuyilona elicishe libe yi-XNUMX% yenani labantu); ezingu-XNUMX XNUMX eGhana kubantu abayizigidi ezingu-XNUMX; nabangu-XNUMX XNUMX eCôte d'Ivoire kubantu abayizigidi ezingu-XNUMX. [XNUMX] Umphakathi wamaFulani nawo ususunguliwe eSudan eduze kohambo lokuya eMecca. Ngeshwa, amaFulani aseSudan iwona mphakathi ofundelwe kancane futhi izinombolo zawo azihlolwanga phakathi nokubalwa kwabantu okusemthethweni.[XNUMX]
Njengephesenti labantu, amaFulani akha ama-38% abantu baseGuinea (enenhloko-dolobha iConakry), 30% eMauritania, 22% eSenegal, ngaphansi kuka-17% eGuinea-Bissau, 16% eMali naseGambia, I-12% eCameroon, icishe ibe ngu-9% eNigeria, i-7.6% eNiger, i-6.3% eBurkina Faso, i-5% eSierra Leone naseCentral African Republic, ngaphansi nje kwe-4% yabantu baseChad kanye namasheya amancane kakhulu eGhana naseCôte. d'Ivoire Ivory. [38]
Izikhathi eziningana emlandweni, amaFulani adale imibuso. Izibonelo ezintathu zingacashunwa:
• Ngekhulu le-18, bamisa isimo esingokwasezulwini saseFuta-Jalon eCentral Guinea;
• Ngekhulu le-19, uMbuso waseMassina eMali (1818 - 1862), owasungulwa nguSekou Amadou Barii, bese u-Amadou Sekou Amadou, owaphumelela ukunqoba idolobha elikhulu laseTimbuktu.
• Futhi ngekhulu le-19, uMbuso WaseSokoto wasungulwa eNigeria.
Le mibuso ibonakale iyizinhlangano zombuso ezingazinzile, noma kunjalo, futhi namuhla, asikho isimo esilawulwa yiFulani. [38]
Njengoba sekuphawuliwe, ngokwesiko amaFulani angabantu abafudukayo, abelusi abayizihambi. Bahlale benjalo ingxenye enkulu, ngisho noma kubhekwa ukuthi idlanzana labo liye lahlala kancane kancane, ngenxa yemikhawulo ebekwe phezu kwabo ngenxa yokwanda okuqhubekayo kogwadule ezindaweni ezithile, nangenxa yokuhlakazeka kwabo, futhi ngoba abanye ohulumeni baye benza izinhlelo ezihloselwe ukuqondisa abantu abayimizulane ukuba baphile impilo yokunganyakazi. [7], [8], [11], [19], [21], [23], [25], [42]
Iningi labo lingamaSulumane, cishe wonke asemazweni amaningana. Ngokomlando, badlala indima ebalulekile ekungeneni kwe-Islam eNtshonalanga Afrika.
Umbhali nomcabango waseMaliya u-Amadou Hampate Bâ (1900-1991), naye ongowesizwe samaFulani, ekhumbula indlela ababonwa ngayo eminye imiphakathi, wenza ukuqhathanisa namaJuda, njengoba nje namaJuda ngaphambi kokudalwa U-Israel , baye bahlakazeka emazweni amaningi, lapho bedala ukuthuka okuphindaphindiwe kweminye imiphakathi, engahlukani kakhulu emazweni ngamazwe: amaFulani avame ukubonwa ngabanye njengabathambekele ekuhlanganyeleni, ukubandlulula kanye nokukhohlisa. [38]
Izingxabano zendabuko ezindaweni zokufuduka zamaFulani, phakathi kwabo, ngakolunye uhlangothi, njengabelusi abayizihambi kanye nabalimi abahlala bezinhlanga ezahlukene, ngakolunye, kanye neqiniso lokuthi bakhona kakhulu kunezinye izinhlanga endaweni. inani elikhulu lamazwe (ngakho-ke ethintana namaqembu ahlukene abantu), ngokungangabazeki afaka isandla encazelweni yaleli dumela, elivame ukugcinwa inani labantu abangena nalo ekuphikisaneni nasekuphikisaneni. [8], [19], [23], [25], [38]
Umbono wokuthi bathuthukisa ama-vectors e-jihadism kusengaphambili futhi ungachazwa ngeqhaza lamaFulani ekuqubukeni kobuphekula esikhathini esingeside esidlule enkabeni yeMali - esifundeni saseMasina nasezweni. ejikeni loMfula iNiger. [26], [28], [36], [41]
Uma kukhulunywa ngamaphuzu aqhamukayo okuxhumana phakathi kwamaFulani kanye “namaJihadists”, kufanele kukhunjulwe njalo ukuthi ngokomlando kulo lonke elase-Afrika, izingxabano ziye zavela futhi ziyaqhubeka zikhona phakathi kwabalimi abazinzile kanye nabelusi, abavame ukuzulazula noma abayimizulane. futhi babe nomkhuba wokufuduka nokuhamba nemihlambi yabo. Abalimi basola abafuyi bezinkomo ngokudla izilimo zabo ngemihlambi yabo, kanti abelusi bakhala ngokwebiwa kwemfuyo, ukungakwazi ukuthola amanzi kanye nezingqinamba ekuhambeni kwazo. [38]
Kodwa kusukela ngo-2010, izingxabano ezikhulayo nezibulalayo ziye zathatha indawo ehluke ngokuphelele, ikakhulukazi esifundeni saseSahel. Ukulwa ngesandla nesandla nokulwa kwekilabhu kuthathelwe indawo ukudubula ngezibhamu zokuhlasela ze-Kalashnikov. [5], [7], [8], [41]
Ukwandiswa okuqhubekayo komhlaba wezolimo, okubangelwa ukwanda okusheshayo kwenani labantu, kancane kancane kunciphisa izindawo zamadlelo nokufuya. Phakathi naleso sikhathi, isomiso esinzima ngeminyaka yawo-1970 kanye nawo-1980 senza abelusi bafudukele eningizimu beya ezindaweni lapho abantu ababehlala khona babengajwayele ukuncintisana nabahambi. Ukwengeza, ukubeka eqhulwini imigomo yokuthuthukiswa kokufuywa kwezilwane kuvame ukucwasa abahambi. [12], [38]
Ngokushiywa ngaphandle kwemigomo yentuthuko, abafuyi bokufika bavame ukuzizwa bebandlululwa yiziphathimandla, babone sengathi bahlala endaweni enobutha futhi bahlangane ukuze bavikele izimfuno zabo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, amaqembu amaphekula namabutho alwa eNtshonalanga Afrika naphakathi azama ukusebenzisa ukukhungatheka kwawo ukuze awanqobe. [7], [10], [12], [14], [25], [26]
Ngesikhathi esifanayo, iningi lemihambima yabelusi esifundeni amaFulani, okuwukuphela kwemizulane etholakala kuwo wonke amazwe akulesi sifunda.
Imvelo yeminye yemibuso yamaFulani okukhulunywe ngayo ngenhla, kanye nesiko elihlukile lempi lamaFulani, liye labangela ababukeli abaningi ukuba bakholelwe ukuthi ukubandakanyeka kweFulani ekuqubukeni kwe-jihadism yamaphekula enkabeni yeMali kusukela ngo-2015 ngandlela thile kuwumkhiqizo ohlangene we ifa elingokomlando kanye nobunikazi babantu baseFulani, abethulwa njenge-bête noire (“isilo esimnyama”). Ukubamba iqhaza kwamaFulani ekukhuleni kwalolu songo lwamaphekula eBurkina Faso noma ngisho naseNiger kubonakala kuqinisekisa lo mbono. [30], [38]
Uma ukhuluma ngefa elingokomlando, kufanele kuqashelwe ukuthi amaFulani adlala indima ebalulekile ekuphikiseni ubukoloni baseFrance, ikakhulukazi eFuta-Jalon nasezifundeni ezizungezile - izindawo ezazizoba amakoloni aseFrance eGuinea, eSenegal naseFrench Sudan. .
Ngaphezu kwalokho, umehluko obalulekile kufanele wenziwe ukuthi ngenkathi amaFulani ebambe iqhaza elibalulekile ekwakhiweni kwesikhungo esisha samaphekula eBurkina Faso, isimo eNiger sihlukile: kuyiqiniso ukuthi kukhona ukuhlaselwa ngezikhathi ezithile ngamaqembu akhiwe yiFulani, kodwa laba abahlaseli bangaphandle. ephuma eMali. [30], [38]
Nokho, ngokusebenza, isimo seFulani sihluka kakhulu emazweni ngamazwe, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi indlela yabo yokuphila (izinga lokuhlala, izinga lemfundo, njll.), indlela abazibona ngayo, noma ngisho nendlela , ngokusho ezibonwa ngabanye.
Ngaphambi kokuqhubeka nokuhlaziywa okujulile kwezindlela ezihlukahlukene zokusebenzisana phakathi kwamaFulani nama-jihadists, kufanele kuqashelwe ukuhlangana okuphawulekayo, okuzobuyela kuzo ekupheleni kwalokhu kuhlaziywa. Kwashiwo ukuthi amaFulani ahlala ehlakazekile e-Afrika - kusukela eGulf of Guinea olwandle i-Atlantic Ocean entshonalanga, ogwini loLwandle Olubomvu empumalanga. Bahlala cishe komunye wemizila yezohwebo yakudala kakhulu e-Afrika - umzila ogijima ngokushesha onqenqemeni oluseningizimu yogwadule lwaseSahara, kuze kube yilolu suku futhi ungomunye wemizila ebaluleke kakhulu lapho ukulima okufudukayo kwenzeka khona eSahel.
Uma, ngakolunye uhlangothi, sibheka ibalazwe lamazwe lapho i-PMC "Wagner" yenza khona imisebenzi esemthethweni, ngokusiza amabutho kahulumeni afanele (kungakhathaliseki ukuthi uhulumeni usemthethweni noma waqala ukubusa ngenxa ye ukuketulwa kwakamuva - bheka ikakhulukazi iMali neBurkina Faso ), sizobona ukuthi kukhona ukushayisana okukhulu phakathi kwamazwe lapho amaFulani ahlala khona nalapho "ama-Wagnerovites" asebenza khona.
Ngakolunye uhlangothi, lokhu kungabangelwa ukuqondana. I-PMC “Wagner” iwaqeda ngempumelelo amazwe lapho kunezingxabano ezinkulu zangaphakathi, futhi uma kuyizimpi zombango - okungcono nakakhulu. Nge-Prigozhin noma ngaphandle kwe-Prigozhin (abanye abantu basacabanga ukuthi uyaphila), i-PMC "Wagner" ngeke inyakaze ezikhundleni zayo. Okokuqala, ngoba kufanele kugcwalise izinkontileka lapho imali ithathwe khona, futhi okwesibili, ngoba lokho kuyigunya le-geopolitical likahulumeni ophakathi eRussian Federation.
Awekho amanga amakhulu ukwedlula isimemezelo sika-“Wagner” “njengenkampani yamasosha ezimele” - PMC. Umuntu angabuza kufanele ukuthi yini “eyimfihlo” ngenkampani eyakhiwe ngokunxusa kukahulumeni omkhulu, ehlonywe yiyo, eyabelwe imisebenzi ebaluleke kakhulu (kuqala eSyria, bese kwenye indawo), inqobo nje uma “kungabasebenzi bomuntu siqu”, ngokusebenzisa ushwele weziboshwa ezinezigwebo ezinzima. “Ngesevisi” enjalo yombuso, ingaphezu kokudukisa, kuwukuhlanekezela ngempela, ukubiza u-“Wagner” ngokuthi “inkampani ezimele”.
I-PMC “Wagner” iyithuluzi lokufeza izifiso zikaPutin zezwe futhi inesibopho sokungena kwe-“Russky Mir” ezindaweni lapho “kungeyona inhlanzeko” ukuthi ibutho elivamile laseRussia livele kuwo wonke amafomu alo asemthethweni. Inkampani ivamise ukuvela lapho kunokuntengantenga okukhulu kwezombusazwe ukuze inikeze izinkonzo zayo njengeMephistopheles yesimanje. AmaFulani anebhadi lokuhlala ezindaweni lapho ukungazinzi kwezombangazwe kuphezulu kakhulu, ngakho-ke ekuqaleni ukungqubuzana kwabo no-PMC Wagner akufanele kumangaze.
Nokho, ngakolunye uhlangothi, okuphambene nakho kuyiqiniso. Ama-PMC “wagner” “anyakaze” ngendlela emangalisayo egudle umzila wohwebo osuvele ushiwo wakudala – umzila osemqoka wanamuhla wokuzalanisa izinkomo, ingxenye yawo eqondana ngisho nomzila wezizwe eziningi zase-Afrika oya eHajj eMecca. I-Fulani ingabantu abangaba yizigidi ezingamashumi amathathu futhi uma i-radicalized, ingabangela ukungqubuzana okungaba nomlingiswa okungenani wempi yase-Afrika yonke.
Kuze kube manje esikhathini sethu, izimpi zezifunda ezingenakubalwa ziye zalwiwa e-Afrika nezinhlekelele ezinkulu kanye nomonakalo nokucekelwa phansi okungenakulinganiswa. Kodwa kunezimpi okungenani ezimbili ezithi amalebula angekho emthethweni "izimpi zomhlaba zase-Afrika", ngamanye amazwi - izimpi ezihilela inani elikhulu lamazwe ezwekazini nangale kwayo. Lezi izimpi ezimbili zaseCongo (namuhla iDemocratic Republic of the Congo). Eyokuqala yaqala ngo-Okthoba 24, 1996 kuya kuMeyi 16, 1997 (izinyanga ezingaphezu kweziyisithupha) futhi yaholela ekuthatheni isikhundla somashiqela wezwe langaleso sikhathi laseZaire - uMobuto Sese Seko kwafakwa uLaurent-Désiré Kabila. Amazwe we-18 kanye nezinhlangano ze-paramilitary zihileleke ngokuqondile ezenzweni zobudlova, ezisekelwa amazwe angu-3 + 6, amanye awo angavuleki ngokuphelele. Impi futhi ngokwezinga elithile yabangelwa ukuqothulwa kohlanga ezweni elingumakhelwane iRwanda, okwaholela eqoqweni lababaleki eDR Congo (eyayiyiZaire ngaleso sikhathi).
Ngokushesha nje lapho kuphela iMpi Yokuqala YaseCongo, ama-Allies anqobile axabana wodwa futhi ngokushesha aphenduka iMpi Yesibili YaseCongo, eyaziwa nangokuthi "iMpi Enkulu Yase-Afrika", eyathatha iminyaka ecishe ibe mihlanu, kusukela ngo-Agasti 2, 1998 kuya. NgoJulayi 18, 2003. Inani lezinhlangano zamasosha ezihilelekile kule mpi cishe akunakwenzeka ukusho, kodwa kwanele ukusho ukuthi ngasohlangothini lukaLaurent-Désiré Kabila balwa namasosha avela e-Angola, eChad, eNamibia, eZimbabwe naseSudan. umbuso waseKinshasa yi-Uganda, iRwanda neBurundi. Njengoba abacwaningi begcizelela njalo, abanye “abasizi” bangenela bengamenywanga ngokuphelele.
Phakathi nempi, umongameli wase-DR Congo, u-Laurent-Désiré Kabila, washona futhi esikhundleni sakhe kwathathwa uJoseph Kabila. Ngaphandle kwalo lonke unya nokucekelwa phansi okungenzeka, impi iphinde ikhunjulwe ngokuqothulwa okuphelele kwezakhamuzi ze-pygmy ezingu-60,000 (!), kanye namaqhawe angama-pygmy angaba ngu-10,000. Impi yaphela ngesivumelwano esenze ukuthi kuhoxiswe ngokusemthethweni wonke amasosha angaphandle e-DR Congo, kuqokwe uJoseph Kabila njengomengameli wesikhashana, nokufungiswa kwamasekela kamongameli amane okwavunyelwana ngawo ngaphambilini, kuncike ezithakazelweni zawo wonke amaqembu alwayo. Ngo-2006, kwaba nokhetho lukazwelonke, njengoba lungase lubanjwe ezweni eliphakathi ne-Afrika elase lihlangabezane nezimpi ezimbili zilandelana zamazwekazi phakathi neminyaka engaphezu kweyisithupha.
Isibonelo sezimpi ezimbili zaseCongo singasinika umbono ongemuhle wokuthi yini engenzeka uma impi ingaqubuka eSahel ehlanganisa abantu abangamaFulani abayizigidi ezingama-30. Asikwazi ukungabaza ukuthi isimo esifanayo sekuyisikhathi eside sicatshangelwa emazweni akulesi sifunda, ikakhulukazi eMoscow, lapho cishe bacabanga ukuthi ngokuzibandakanya kwe-PMC "Wagner" eMali, Algeria, Libya, Sudan, South Sudan, CAR kanye ICameroon (kanye naseDR Congo, Zimbabwe, Mozambique kanye neMadagascar), "bagcina isandla sabo phezu kwekhawunta" yengxabano enkulu engase ivuswe ngenxa yesidingo.
Izifiso zeMoscow zokuba nomthelela e-Afrika aziveli nhlobo izolo. E-USSR, kwakukhona isikole esilungiselelwe ngokukhethekile sezikhulu zezobunhloli, amadiplomats futhi, ngaphezu kwakho konke, ochwepheshe bezempi ababekulungele ukungenelela esifundeni esisodwa noma esinye sezwekazi uma kunesidingo. Ingxenye enkulu yamazwe ase-Afrika yaklanywa i-Soviet General Administration of Geodesy and Cartography (emuva ngo-1879 - 1928) futhi "ama-Wagners" angathembela ekusekelweni kolwazi oluhle kakhulu.
Kunezinkomba eziqinile zethonya elinamandla laseRussia ekwenzeni ukuketula umbuso eMali naseBurkina Faso. Okwamanje, azikho izinsolo zokubandakanyeka kweRussia ekuketulweni umbuso kweNiger, noNobhala Wezwe waseMelika uBlinken ukuchithile mathupha lokho. Lokhu kokugcina, yiqiniso, akusho neze ukuthi ngesikhathi sokuphila kwakhe u-Prigozhin akazange abamukele abahleli bokuvukela umbuso futhi akazange anikeze izinkonzo zenkampani yakhe yezempi "yangasese".
Ngokomoya wamasiko angaphambili e-Marxist, nalapha iRussia isebenza ngohlelo oluncane kanye nohlelo olukhulu. Okungenani "ukubeka unyawo" emazweni amaningi, ukubamba "izindawo ezingaphandle", ukudala ithonya phakathi kwezicukuthwane zendawo, ikakhulukazi phakathi kwezempi, futhi kuxhashazwe amaminerali amaningi endawo abalulekile ngangokunokwenzeka. I-PMC “Wagner” isivele izuze imiphumela mayelana nalokhu.
Uhlelo olukhulu ukuthola ukulawula kuso sonke isifunda saseSahel futhi uvumele iMoscow inqume ukuthi kuzokwenzekani lapho - ukuthula noma impi. Omunye angasho ngokunengqondo ukuthi: “yebo, kunjalo - kunengqondo ukuqoqa imali yohulumeni bamavukelambuso futhi kumbiwe imithombo yamaminerali ebalulekile ngangokunokwenzeka. Kodwa yini isihogo esidingwa amaRussia ukuze alawule ukuba khona kwamazwe aseSahel?”
Impendulo yalo mbuzo onengqondo itholakala eqinisweni lokuthi uma kwenzeka kuba nengxabano yezempi eSahel, ukugeleza kwababaleki kuzophuthuma eYurophu. Laba kuzoba yizinkumbi zabantu abangeke bakwazi ukulawulwa amaphoyisa eyedwa. Sizobona izigcawu nezindawo ezimbi ezinecala elikhulu lenkulumo-ze. Cishe, amazwe aseYurophu azozama ukwamukela ingxenye yababaleki, ngezindleko zokuvalela abanye e-Afrika, okuzodingeka basekelwe yi-EU ngenxa yokungakwazi ukuzivikela okuphelele.
EMoscow, konke lokhu kungaba yisimo sepharadesi ukuthi iMoscow yayingeke ingangabazi ukuqalisa ngesikhathi esithile, uma inikezwa ithuba. Kusobala ukuthi ikhono leFrance lokudlala indima yebutho elikhulu lokugcina ukuthula liyabuzwa, futhi futhi umbuzo isifiso seFrance ukuqhubeka nokwenza imisebenzi enjalo, ikakhulukazi ngemva kwecala eMali kanye nokuqedwa kwemishini ye-UN. Lapho. E-Moscow, abakhathazekile ngokwenza i-nuclear ye-nuclear, kodwa okusele ngokuqhumisa "ibhomu lokufuduka", lapho ingekho imisebe ye-radioactive, kodwa umphumela usengaba yingozi.
Ngokuqondile ngenxa yalezi zizathu, izinqubo emazweni aseSahel kufanele zilandelwe futhi zifundwe ngokujulile, kuhlanganise nososayensi nochwepheshe baseBulgaria. I-Bulgaria ihamba phambili enkingeni yokufuduka futhi iziphathimandla ezweni lakithi ziphoqelekile ukuba zibe nomthelela odingekayo kunqubomgomo ye-EU ukuze zilungiselele "izinto eziphuthumayo" ezinjalo.
Ingxenye yesibili iyalandela
Imithombo esetshenzisiwe:
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Mayelana umbhali:
U-Teodor Detchev ube nguprofesa osebenza ngokugcwele e-Higher School of Security and Economics (VUSI) - Plovdiv (Bulgaria) kusukela ngo-2016.
Ufundise e-New Bulgarian University - e-Sofia nase-VTU "St. uCyril noMethodius”. Njengamanje ufundisa eVUSI, kanye nase-UNSS. Izifundo zakhe eziyinhloko zokufundisa yilezi: Ubudlelwano bezezimboni nokuvikeleka, ubudlelwane bezimboni zaseYurophu, i-Economic sociology (ngesiNgisi nesiBulgaria), i-Ethnosociology, izingxabano ze-Ethno-political and national, Ubuphekula kanye nokubulawa kwezombusazwe - izinkinga zezombangazwe nezenhlalo, Ukuthuthukiswa okuphumelelayo kwezinhlangano.
Ungumbhali wemisebenzi yesayensi engaphezu kwe-35 yokumelana nomlilo wezakhiwo zokwakha kanye nokumelana namagobolondo ensimbi eyi-cylindrical. Ungumbhali wemisebenzi engaphezu kwengama-40 emayelana nesayensi yezokuhlalisana kwabantu, isayensi yezepolitiki kanye nobudlelwano bezimboni, okuhlanganisa nemibhalo ebhalwe phansi: Ubudlelwano bemboni nokuvikeleka - ingxenye 1. Izivumelwano zomphakathi ekuxoxisaneni okuhlangene (2015); Ukusebenzisana Kwezikhungo kanye Nobudlelwano Bezimboni (2012); Izingxoxo Zomphakathi Emkhakheni Wezokuphepha Ezizimele (2006); "Izinhlobo Zomsebenzi Eziguquguqukayo" kanye (Okuthunyelwe) Ubudlelwano Bezimboni e-Central and Eastern Europe (2006).
Ubhale ngokuhlanganyela izincwadi ezithi: Innovations in collective bargaining. Izici zaseYurophu naseBulgaria; Abaqashi nabesifazane baseBulgaria emsebenzini; Ingxoxo Yomphakathi kanye Nokuqashwa Kwabesifazane Emkhakheni Wokusetshenziswa Kwe-Biomass e-Bulgaria. Muva nje ubesebenza ezindabeni zobudlelwano phakathi kobudlelwano bezimboni kanye nezokuphepha; ukuthuthukiswa kokuhlukana kwamaphekula emhlabeni wonke; izinkinga ze-ethnosociological, izingxabano zobuzwe kanye ne-ethno-religious.
Ilungu le-International Labour and Employment Relations Association (ILERA), i-American Sociological Association (ASA) kanye ne-Bulgarian Association for Political Science (BAPN).
Intando yeningi yenhlalo ngokukholelwa kwezepolitiki. Esikhathini sika-1998 - 2001, ubeyiPhini likaNgqongqoshe Wezabasebenzi Nenqubomgomo Yezenhlalakahle. Umhleli oMkhulu wephephandaba elithi “Svoboden Narod” kusukela ngo-1993 kuya ku-1997. I-AIKB kusukela ngo-2012 kuze kube namuhla. Ilungu le-NSTS kusuka ngo-2013 kuya ku-2003.
